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Clinical Risk Factors and Atherosclerotic Plaque Extent to Define Risk for Major Events in Patients Without Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease: The Long-Term Coronary Computed Tomography Angiography CONFIRM Registry Major Bleeding Rates in Atrial Fibrillation Patients on Single, Dual, or Triple Antithrombotic Therapy Empagliflozin Increases Cardiac Energy Production in Diabetes - Novel Translational Insights Into the Heart Failure Benefits of SGLT2 Inhibitors Sequence variations in PCSK9, low LDL, and protection against coronary heart disease Dapagliflozin in Patients with Heart Failure and Reduced Ejection Fraction 2019 ACC/AHA/ASE Advanced Training Statement on Echocardiography (Revision of the 2003 ACC/AHA Clinical Competence Statement on Echocardiography): A Report of the ACC Competency Management Committee Atherosclerosis — An Inflammatory Disease Systemic microvascular dysfunction in microvascular and vasospastic angina The Role of the Pericardium in Heart Failure: Implications for Pathophysiology and Treatment Regional Heterogeneity in the Coronary Vascular Response in Women With Chest Pain and Nonobstructive Coronary Artery Disease

Review ArticleVolume 73, Issue 13, 9 April 2019, Pages 1691-1706

JOURNAL:J Am Coll Cardiol. Article Link

Targeting the Immune System in Atherosclerosis: JACC State-of-the-Art Review

TX Zhao, Z Mallat. Keywords: atherosclerosis; clinical trials; immune system; inflammation; therapy and outcome

ABSTRACT


Atherosclerosis has long been known as an inflammatory disease. However, whether targeting inflammation improves outcomes was unproven until the recent results of CANTOS (Canakinumab Anti-InflammatoryThrombosis Outcomes Study). In this review, we reflect on why it has taken a long time to prove the inflammatory hypothesis of atherosclerosis and derive important lessons for the future. In particular, we discuss the off-target immune-modulatory effects of approved cardiovascular therapies, review the attempted anti-inflammatory therapies including the recently published CIRT (Cardiovascular Inflammation Reduction Trial), and discuss the likely reasons for their failures. We further build on CANTOS to review the immune-modulatory therapies for atherosclerosis currently in trials, and discuss the likelihood of their added value as well as the potential hazard associated with their use. We finally argue for a critical approach to the use of animal models, coupled with the use of humans as model organisms to accelerate the identification of the most appropriate targets.